Jesus' ecclesiology is deceptively simple. Jesus uses the
word "ἐκκλησία" twice in
the Gospel of Matthew. With the exception of the visions in the Book of
Revelation, Jesus was never recorded to speak of the church other than in these
two places. Matthew 16:18 says "But I also say that you are Peter, and
upon this rock I will build a church of my own and the gates of Hades will not
overpower it.[1]"
Matthew 18:17 says, "Now if he should ignore them this time, tell the
church. But if he should ignore the church this time, he is to be to you like a
gentile or a tax collector." From these passages, it appears that Jesus
believed he would establish a single church made up of holy people.
Jesus' ecclesiology is deceptively simple. Jesus uses the
word "ἐκκλησία" twice in
the Gospel of Matthew. With the exception of the visions in the Book of
Revelation, Jesus was never recorded to speak of the church other than in these
two places. Matthew 16:18 says "But I also say that you are Peter, and
upon this rock I will build a church of my own and the gates of Hades will not
overpower it.[1]"
Matthew 18:17 says, "Now if he should ignore them this time, tell the
church. But if he should ignore the church this time, he is to be to you like a
gentile or a tax collector." From these passages, it appears that Jesus
believed he would establish a single church made up of holy people.
Every group of Christians wants in some way to be part of
the church Jesus built. No Christian will admit to wanting meaningless division
between Christians. Few Christians would claim that Christians can and should
be immoral. Unity of the church implies historical continuity if the church was
established by Jesus during this life or after the resurrection. J. M. Carroll said, "I was converted
unto God when I was just a boy. I saw many denominations and wondered which was
the church the Lord Jesus founded." Carroll traced Baptists through
history using persecution to the Donatists in North Africa.
Carroll brings a good question about the legitimacy of the
church. He said that two fundamental doctrines of the church are "Its
members. Believers only, they saved by grace, not works through the regenerating
power of the Holy Spirit… [and] Absolute Religious liberty for all. Though the
need to connect any group of Christians with the early church is an important
endeavor for Christian identity, and anti-Donatist interpretations of Scripture
seem harsh, to see Donatist as North African proto-Baptists does not do justice
to the historical context of the Donatists. The Donatist Controversy may be
seen as four intersecting conflicts revolving around early Western Christianity.
Every group of Christians wants in some way to be part of
the church Jesus built. No Christian will admit to wanting meaningless division
between Christians. Few Christians would claim that Christians can and should
be immoral. Unity of the church implies historical continuity if the church was
established by Jesus during this life or after the resurrection. J. M. Carroll said, "I was converted
unto God when I was just a boy. I saw many denominations and wondered which was
the church the Lord Jesus founded." Carroll traced Baptists through
history using persecution to the Donatists in North Africa.
Carroll brings a good question about the legitimacy of the
church. He said that two fundamental doctrines of the church are "Its
members. Believers only, they saved by grace, not works through the regenerating
power of the Holy Spirit… [and] Absolute Religious liberty for all. Though the
need to connect any group of Christians with the early church is an important
endeavor for Christian identity, and anti-Donatist interpretations of Scripture
seem harsh, to see Donatist as North African proto-Baptists does not do justice
to the historical context of the Donatists. The Donatist Controversy may be
seen as four intersecting conflicts revolving around early Western Christianity.
Donatism was a North African religious movement.[2] Donatism
was a conflict revolving around the acceptance of those who gave up the
Scriptures or sacrificed to the emperor. These were called traditors or
betrayers.[3] Specifically,
Donatus of Casae Nigrae opposed the ordination of Caecilian of Carthage by Felix
of Aptunga. Felix of Aptunga was a traditor. Thomas Oden said
"Africa was the scene of the worst excesses of the Valerian persecution
that beheaded Cyprian in Carthage in A.D. 257, and the Diocletian persecution
of A.D. 303-305 that beheaded Peter of Alexandria."[4] The
persecution under Diocletian was done by Roman edicts and officials, therefore
Donatism had its primary conflict with Christians connected with the Church of
Rome. The conflict began after a council was convened to determine the
legitimacy of Caecilian's ordination. This session included fifteen men:
"Miltiades the Bishop of the city of Rome;
Maternus, Reticius and Marinus, the
Gaulish Bishops; Merocles from Milan; Florianus from Siena, Zoticus from
Quintianum, Stennius from Rimini, Felix from Tuscan Florence, Gaudentius from
Pisa, Constantius from Faventia, Proterius from Capua, Theophilus from
Beneventum, Sabinus from Tarracina, Secundus from Praeneste, Felix from Tres
Tabernae, Maximus from Ostia, Evandrus from Ursinum and Donatianus from Forum
Claudii."[5]
According to Edwards, none of these bishops are Africans but
are all European.[6]
Since "Donatus thought it proper to appeal [to the Emperor],"[7] it
appears that Donatus was not merely upset that the council ruled against his
position. I believe that Donatus thought
that the council was prejudiced against his position. This requires some
examination of the political context.
Rome encountered Carthage, a Phoenician colony which had
achieved prominence in North Africa. From 264 to 146 B.C., Rome fought a series
of three wars with Carthage taking control over the eastern Mediterranean
region.[8]
Rome established colonies in North Africa to protect the interests of the
empire. W. H. C. Frend points out one city, "Hippo Regius … is blocked by rapids.
The coastal settlements… were sited for defense and not for the purpose of
trading with the interior."[9]
These military stations did not seem to be in the interest of the people of northern
Africa.
Because of the perceived imperialism and
regulation of worship, a certain group called Circumcellions with
affinity to the Donatists had a series of uprisings against the Roman
government. The Circumcellions were called such because "they lived
'around the shrines' whence they got their food."[10] Maureen Tilley describes them as "religiously
conservative migrant agricultural laborers who were usually, though not always
Donatist supporters."[11]
It seems to be that one of the commonalities between the Circumcellions
and the Donatist is the martyr cult.
St. Monica, Augustine's mother and an African,
is generally received in a positive light in the Confessions. Yet, at
one point she seems to be presented in a less than favorable light.
"And so, when she brought gruel, bread, and wine to
the shrines of the saints, as she had been accustomed to do in Africa, she was
stopped by the doorkeeper. When she learned that the bishop had forbidden this,
she accepted it so reverently and obediently that I myself was amazed at how
easily she became an incriminator of her own custom, rather than an adjudicator
of this prohibition."[12]
The bishop here is Ambrose, as seen at the end
of chapter 1, who is a Roman. This statement in the Confessions is
clearly a condemnation of North African worship and a call to submission to the
Catholic Church and her bishops. In light of this, the Donatist controversy
includes a geopolitical and racial controversy.
Donatism was a North African religious movement.[2] Donatism
was a conflict revolving around the acceptance of those who gave up the
Scriptures or sacrificed to the emperor. These were called traditors or
betrayers.[3] Specifically,
Donatus of Casae Nigrae opposed the ordination of Caecilian of Carthage by Felix
of Aptunga. Felix of Aptunga was a traditor. Thomas Oden said
"Africa was the scene of the worst excesses of the Valerian persecution
that beheaded Cyprian in Carthage in A.D. 257, and the Diocletian persecution
of A.D. 303-305 that beheaded Peter of Alexandria."[4] The
persecution under Diocletian was done by Roman edicts and officials, therefore
Donatism had its primary conflict with Christians connected with the Church of
Rome. The conflict began after a council was convened to determine the
legitimacy of Caecilian's ordination. This session included fifteen men:
"Miltiades the Bishop of the city of Rome;
Maternus, Reticius and Marinus, the
Gaulish Bishops; Merocles from Milan; Florianus from Siena, Zoticus from
Quintianum, Stennius from Rimini, Felix from Tuscan Florence, Gaudentius from
Pisa, Constantius from Faventia, Proterius from Capua, Theophilus from
Beneventum, Sabinus from Tarracina, Secundus from Praeneste, Felix from Tres
Tabernae, Maximus from Ostia, Evandrus from Ursinum and Donatianus from Forum
Claudii."[5]
According to Edwards, none of these bishops are Africans but
are all European.[6]
Since "Donatus thought it proper to appeal [to the Emperor],"[7] it
appears that Donatus was not merely upset that the council ruled against his
position. I believe that Donatus thought
that the council was prejudiced against his position. This requires some
examination of the political context.
Rome encountered Carthage, a Phoenician colony which had
achieved prominence in North Africa. From 264 to 146 B.C., Rome fought a series
of three wars with Carthage taking control over the eastern Mediterranean
region.[8]
Rome established colonies in North Africa to protect the interests of the
empire. W. H. C. Frend points out one city, "Hippo Regius … is blocked by rapids.
The coastal settlements… were sited for defense and not for the purpose of
trading with the interior."[9]
These military stations did not seem to be in the interest of the people of northern
Africa.
Because of the perceived imperialism and
regulation of worship, a certain group called Circumcellions with
affinity to the Donatists had a series of uprisings against the Roman
government. The Circumcellions were called such because "they lived
'around the shrines' whence they got their food."[10] Maureen Tilley describes them as "religiously
conservative migrant agricultural laborers who were usually, though not always
Donatist supporters."[11]
It seems to be that one of the commonalities between the Circumcellions
and the Donatist is the martyr cult.
St. Monica, Augustine's mother and an African,
is generally received in a positive light in the Confessions. Yet, at
one point she seems to be presented in a less than favorable light.
"And so, when she brought gruel, bread, and wine to
the shrines of the saints, as she had been accustomed to do in Africa, she was
stopped by the doorkeeper. When she learned that the bishop had forbidden this,
she accepted it so reverently and obediently that I myself was amazed at how
easily she became an incriminator of her own custom, rather than an adjudicator
of this prohibition."[12]
The bishop here is Ambrose, as seen at the end
of chapter 1, who is a Roman. This statement in the Confessions is
clearly a condemnation of North African worship and a call to submission to the
Catholic Church and her bishops. In light of this, the Donatist controversy
includes a geopolitical and racial controversy.
Another aspect of the Donatist controversy is the reality of
economic conflict between poor, predominantly rural, African Donatists and
middle-class to rich, predominantly urban, Roman Catholics. Whenever a country
is colonized, the country colonizing tends to get more wealth from the colonies
than is spent maintaining the colonies. The wealthy tend to avoid financial
sacrifice, if it can be passed on to those who are poorer. Though the Catholic
Church did not seek to financially oppress the poor, the economic aspect of the
Donatist controversy may not be ignored.
As previously stated, the Donatists had an alliance with the
Circumcellions who
were rural poor. Part of what inflamed the Circumcellions was excessive
taxation.[13]
Because of the connection between the church and the state, Rome was inclined
to assist the Catholic Church. This enflamed Circumcellion rebellion to
take Roman property for the Donatists. John Corcoran said, "In 321 at
Cerita a power center for Donatist interests the Emperor Constantine built a
basilica for the Catholics the Donatists simply took possession of it when it
was completed."[14] Buildings
and land are a significant investment of funds.
Though the Donatists became known for their
connection with violent groups, which may have led to the decline of Donatism,
Rogatists separated from the Donatists because of the abuses of the Circumcellions.
The Rogatists, led by Rogatus Bishop of Cartenna, opposed the use of force and
the excesses of the Circumcellions. The Rogatists lasted until 420 CE.[15]
Economic and racial issues magnified the conflict, and can be legitimate ways
of understanding the Donatist controversy. These two practical and social
controversies increased the division between Donatists and Catholics in matters
of doctrine.
Another aspect of the Donatist controversy is the reality of
economic conflict between poor, predominantly rural, African Donatists and
middle-class to rich, predominantly urban, Roman Catholics. Whenever a country
is colonized, the country colonizing tends to get more wealth from the colonies
than is spent maintaining the colonies. The wealthy tend to avoid financial
sacrifice, if it can be passed on to those who are poorer. Though the Catholic
Church did not seek to financially oppress the poor, the economic aspect of the
Donatist controversy may not be ignored.
As previously stated, the Donatists had an alliance with the
Circumcellions who
were rural poor. Part of what inflamed the Circumcellions was excessive
taxation.[13]
Because of the connection between the church and the state, Rome was inclined
to assist the Catholic Church. This enflamed Circumcellion rebellion to
take Roman property for the Donatists. John Corcoran said, "In 321 at
Cerita a power center for Donatist interests the Emperor Constantine built a
basilica for the Catholics the Donatists simply took possession of it when it
was completed."[14] Buildings
and land are a significant investment of funds.
Though the Donatists became known for their
connection with violent groups, which may have led to the decline of Donatism,
Rogatists separated from the Donatists because of the abuses of the Circumcellions.
The Rogatists, led by Rogatus Bishop of Cartenna, opposed the use of force and
the excesses of the Circumcellions. The Rogatists lasted until 420 CE.[15]
Economic and racial issues magnified the conflict, and can be legitimate ways
of understanding the Donatist controversy. These two practical and social
controversies increased the division between Donatists and Catholics in matters
of doctrine.
The central figure leading to the ecclesiastical crisis
between Donatist and Catholic churches in North Africa was not Caecilian. If
Caecilian had not been opposed by Donatus, someone would have asked the same
questions over the nature of the church. Both Donatists and Catholics claim St.
Cyprian as an intellectual and spiritual father. Cyprian wrote, "This
unity we ought to hold and preserve, especially we who preside in the church as
bishops, that we may prove the episcopate itself to be one and undivided."[16]
Yet in the same work Cyprian argued, "To this one Church the Holy Spirit
points in the Song of Songs, in the person of our Lord, saying, 'My dove, my
spotless one, is but one; she is the only one of her mother, elect of her that
bare her.' (Cant. vi.9)".[17]
Cyprian loved the Church and the idea of the church. To him the
Church was a unified, righteous, universal body that could not be divided. This
body finds unity through the fellowship and mutual recognition of bishops.
Therefore, a bishop is no longer to be recognized as legitimate if he betrays
the faith. Tilley said, "He even advised Spanish Christians in 254 that it
was right for them to separate themselves from their bishops who had
apostatized: 'The people should not flatter themselves… reject the
unworthy."[18]
On the other hand Eric Rebillard showed that Tertullian believed that
catechumens and deniers may be part of the church.[19]
Donatus did not support Caecilian because Donatus believed
Felix was a traditore. There were six bishops who either yielded to
persecution or lied to escape the punishment of persecution.[20]
This is a problem for the holiness of church, leading to a question of the
legitimacy of the church.
The central figure leading to the ecclesiastical crisis
between Donatist and Catholic churches in North Africa was not Caecilian. If
Caecilian had not been opposed by Donatus, someone would have asked the same
questions over the nature of the church. Both Donatists and Catholics claim St.
Cyprian as an intellectual and spiritual father. Cyprian wrote, "This
unity we ought to hold and preserve, especially we who preside in the church as
bishops, that we may prove the episcopate itself to be one and undivided."[16]
Yet in the same work Cyprian argued, "To this one Church the Holy Spirit
points in the Song of Songs, in the person of our Lord, saying, 'My dove, my
spotless one, is but one; she is the only one of her mother, elect of her that
bare her.' (Cant. vi.9)".[17]
Cyprian loved the Church and the idea of the church. To him the
Church was a unified, righteous, universal body that could not be divided. This
body finds unity through the fellowship and mutual recognition of bishops.
Therefore, a bishop is no longer to be recognized as legitimate if he betrays
the faith. Tilley said, "He even advised Spanish Christians in 254 that it
was right for them to separate themselves from their bishops who had
apostatized: 'The people should not flatter themselves… reject the
unworthy."[18]
On the other hand Eric Rebillard showed that Tertullian believed that
catechumens and deniers may be part of the church.[19]
Donatus did not support Caecilian because Donatus believed
Felix was a traditore. There were six bishops who either yielded to
persecution or lied to escape the punishment of persecution.[20]
This is a problem for the holiness of church, leading to a question of the
legitimacy of the church.
When Cyprian was alive, persecution was common. Traditores
and others who apostatized, lapsi, would still be subject to future
persecution. Hans Lietzmann said, "Any man who urged that he should be
received back (into church fellowship) had the opportunity every day of
appearing before the rulers of the state and becoming a martyr; in this way he
could reverse his backsliding."[21]
After the persecution the church had to deal with lapsi who could not
redeem themselves through persecution. In addition to the lapsi, traditores
were performing the sacraments.
Cyprian said, "…He that leaves the church of Christ
attains not to Christ's rewards. He is an alien, an outcast and an enemy. He
cannot have God for his father who has not the church for his mother."[22]
The reason for wanting to know if the church is legitimate was tied to the
legitimacy of the sacraments. Legitimate sacraments were seen as part of how
God saved. Therefore, the lapsi issue is not merely an issue of who
belongs in the church, but it has eternal consequences.
Donatists, as seen in Parmenian, taught that God gave dotes
to the church. The dotes are spiritual gifts that empower church
leaders. These dotes are legitimate because they were from the true
church. Augustine represented the Catholic position. Neither the sacrament, the
dotes, the minister nor the church grant the grace. Instead God is the
source of all grace.[23]
When Cyprian was alive, persecution was common. Traditores
and others who apostatized, lapsi, would still be subject to future
persecution. Hans Lietzmann said, "Any man who urged that he should be
received back (into church fellowship) had the opportunity every day of
appearing before the rulers of the state and becoming a martyr; in this way he
could reverse his backsliding."[21]
After the persecution the church had to deal with lapsi who could not
redeem themselves through persecution. In addition to the lapsi, traditores
were performing the sacraments.
Cyprian said, "…He that leaves the church of Christ
attains not to Christ's rewards. He is an alien, an outcast and an enemy. He
cannot have God for his father who has not the church for his mother."[22]
The reason for wanting to know if the church is legitimate was tied to the
legitimacy of the sacraments. Legitimate sacraments were seen as part of how
God saved. Therefore, the lapsi issue is not merely an issue of who
belongs in the church, but it has eternal consequences.
Donatists, as seen in Parmenian, taught that God gave dotes
to the church. The dotes are spiritual gifts that empower church
leaders. These dotes are legitimate because they were from the true
church. Augustine represented the Catholic position. Neither the sacrament, the
dotes, the minister nor the church grant the grace. Instead God is the
source of all grace.[23]
Thomas Oden has helped the church by trying to bring the
wisdom of the early church to current contexts. His paleo-orthodoxy brings the
church to listen to the historical witness. The problem with history for
theology is that history is not clean. Though historians may want to make one
side in a conflict appear to be the hero and the other the villain, or try to
make the reader identify with a particular religious tradition in history, this
will not do.
The Donatists were not, as a whole, great defenders of
religious liberty and justification by faith alone. The Donatist stance on
re-admittance of laity and clergy does not reflect Carroll's vision of a church
which believes in the Baptist doctrine of perseverance of the saints. Carroll
was correct in seeing the need to link the modern church to the church Jesus
founded.
The Donatist controversies therefore should lead to
reflection within the modern church. Racism and economic injustice may impact
the way the church tries to reach those who are lost. Non-Catholics need to
examine the meaning of unity of the church. The early church seemed to view
institutional unity as a vital component of the true church. The church also
needs to examine how salvation works in the lives of the individuals. If
nothing else, the Donatist controversy clearly shows that the doctrine of
salvation is corporate and individual and that the history of the church is messy.
Thomas Oden has helped the church by trying to bring the
wisdom of the early church to current contexts. His paleo-orthodoxy brings the
church to listen to the historical witness. The problem with history for
theology is that history is not clean. Though historians may want to make one
side in a conflict appear to be the hero and the other the villain, or try to
make the reader identify with a particular religious tradition in history, this
will not do.
The Donatists were not, as a whole, great defenders of
religious liberty and justification by faith alone. The Donatist stance on
re-admittance of laity and clergy does not reflect Carroll's vision of a church
which believes in the Baptist doctrine of perseverance of the saints. Carroll
was correct in seeing the need to link the modern church to the church Jesus
founded.
The Donatist controversies therefore should lead to
reflection within the modern church. Racism and economic injustice may impact
the way the church tries to reach those who are lost. Non-Catholics need to
examine the meaning of unity of the church. The early church seemed to view
institutional unity as a vital component of the true church. The church also
needs to examine how salvation works in the lives of the individuals. If
nothing else, the Donatist controversy clearly shows that the doctrine of
salvation is corporate and individual and that the history of the church is messy.
Aurelius
Augustinus. Confessions. Fathers of the
Church 21. Translated by Vernon J. Bourke. New York : Catholic University of
America Press, 1953.
Bettenson,
Henry Scowcroft and Chris Maunder. Documents of the Christian Church. 3rd
ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Cyprian.
"The Unity of the Church, " in Treatises. Fathers of the Church 36.
Translated by Roy J. Deferrari. New York : Catholic University of America
Press, 1953.
Optatus.
Optatus, Against the Donatists.. Edited by Mark Edwards. Liverpool:
Liverpool Univ. Press, 1997.
Tilley,
Maureen A. Donatist Martyr Stories: The Church in Conflict
in Roman North Africa. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1996.
Aurelius
Augustinus. Confessions. Fathers of the
Church 21. Translated by Vernon J. Bourke. New York : Catholic University of
America Press, 1953.
Bettenson,
Henry Scowcroft and Chris Maunder. Documents of the Christian Church. 3rd
ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Cyprian.
"The Unity of the Church, " in Treatises. Fathers of the Church 36.
Translated by Roy J. Deferrari. New York : Catholic University of America
Press, 1953.
Optatus.
Optatus, Against the Donatists.. Edited by Mark Edwards. Liverpool:
Liverpool Univ. Press, 1997.
Tilley,
Maureen A. Donatist Martyr Stories: The Church in Conflict
in Roman North Africa. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1996.
Cancik,
Hubert, Anne-Maria Wittke, Eckart Olshausen, et al. eds. Brill's
New Pauly Historical Atlas of the Ancient World. Brill's
New Pauly Supplement 3. Leiden : Boston : Brill, 2010.
Di
Berardino, Angelo, and Gianluca Pilara. Historical Atlas of Ancient Christianity. St.
Davids, PA: ICCS Press, 2013
"Donatism,"
edited by F. L. Cross and Elizabeth A. Livingstone. The Oxford Dictionary of
the Christian Church. Oxford; New
York: Oxford University Press, 2005.
Faul, D.
"Donatism." New Catholic Encyclopedia. 2nd ed. Vol. 4. Detroit: Gale, 2003. 861-864.
Frend,
W. H. C. "Donatism, " Edited by Angelo Di Berardino. Encyclopedia
of Ancient Christianity. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2014.
Landfester,
Manfred, Hubert Cancik, and Helmuth Schneider. Brill's
New Pauly : Encyclopaedia of the Ancient World.
Brill's New Pauly Classical Tradition Boston : Brill, 2006-2011. 1:696-713,
IV:472-473, IV:684.
Watson,
D.F. "Roman Empire," Edited by Craig A. Evans and Stanley E. Porter,
eds. Dictionary of New Testament Background. Downers Grove, Ill.:
InterVarsity Press, 2000. 974-978.
Cancik,
Hubert, Anne-Maria Wittke, Eckart Olshausen, et al. eds. Brill's
New Pauly Historical Atlas of the Ancient World. Brill's
New Pauly Supplement 3. Leiden : Boston : Brill, 2010.
Di
Berardino, Angelo, and Gianluca Pilara. Historical Atlas of Ancient Christianity. St.
Davids, PA: ICCS Press, 2013
"Donatism,"
edited by F. L. Cross and Elizabeth A. Livingstone. The Oxford Dictionary of
the Christian Church. Oxford; New
York: Oxford University Press, 2005.
Faul, D.
"Donatism." New Catholic Encyclopedia. 2nd ed. Vol. 4. Detroit: Gale, 2003. 861-864.
Frend,
W. H. C. "Donatism, " Edited by Angelo Di Berardino. Encyclopedia
of Ancient Christianity. Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, 2014.
Landfester,
Manfred, Hubert Cancik, and Helmuth Schneider. Brill's
New Pauly : Encyclopaedia of the Ancient World.
Brill's New Pauly Classical Tradition Boston : Brill, 2006-2011. 1:696-713,
IV:472-473, IV:684.
Watson,
D.F. "Roman Empire," Edited by Craig A. Evans and Stanley E. Porter,
eds. Dictionary of New Testament Background. Downers Grove, Ill.:
InterVarsity Press, 2000. 974-978.
Corcoran,
John Anthony. "Augustinus Contra Donatistas." Graduate Theological
Foundation, 1997.
Frend,
W. H. C. The Donatist Church: A Movement of Protest in Roman North Africa.
Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1952.
Harris,
Scott C. “The Dark Side of Suffering: Persecution as a Schismatic Source in the
Early Church.” Golden Gate Baptist Theological Seminary, 2000.
Lietzmann,
Hans. The Founding of the Church Universal. London: Lutterworth, 1950.
Oden,
Thomas C. Early Libyan Christianity: Uncovering a North African Tradition.
Downers Grove, Ill.: IVP Academic, 2011.
Rebillard,
Éric. Christians and Their Many Identities in Late Antiquity, North Africa,
200-450 CE. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2012.
Tilley,
Maureen A. The Bible in Christian North Africa: The Donatist World.
Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1997.
Waldrop,
Jeffrey A. “St. Augustine’s Doctrine for Understanding Schismatic Heresy and
His Political Position Concerning the Donatists: A Question of Ecclesiastical
Discipline or an Example of Roman Imperialism in North Africa?” Golden Gate
Baptist Theological Seminary, 2006.
[1]
Translation of the Bible is the author's unless otherwise noted.
[2] Jeffrey A. Waldrop, “St. Augustine’s Doctrine for
Understanding Schismatic Heresy and His Political Position Concerning the
Donatists: A Question of Ecclesiastical Discipline or an Example of Roman
Imperialism in North Africa?” (Th.M. Thesis, Golden Gate Baptist Theological
Seminary, 2006), 9
[3] Scott C. Harris, “The Dark Side of Suffering: Persecution
As a Schismatic Source in the Early Church” (Th. M. Thesis, Golden Gate Baptist
Theological Seminary, 2000), 87
[4] Thomas C. Oden, Early Libyan Christianity: Uncovering
a North African Tradition (Downers Grove, Ill.: IVP Academic, 2011), 87
[5] Optatus, Optatus, Against the Donatists, ed. Mark
Edwards (Liverpool: Liverpool Univ. Press, 1997), 24
[6] Ibid.
[7] Ibid., 25
[8] D. F. Watson, “Roman Empire,” Dictionary of
New Testament Background, Craig A. Evans and Stanley E. Porter, eds. (Downers
Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 2000) 975.
[9] W. H. C. Frend, The Donatist Church: A Movement of
Protest in Roman North Africa (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1952), 27
[10] Ibid., 173
[11] Maureen A. Tilley, The Bible in Christian North
Africa: The Donatist World (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1997), 25
[12] Aurelius Augustinus, Confessions.
Fathers of the Church 21, translated by Vernon J. Bourke (New York : Catholic
University of America Press, 1953), 131, book
6 ch. 2
http://library.ggbts.edu:2083/lib/ggbts/detail.action?docID=10383925&token=6010fdaf-61ff-4e9f-9b21-170ee8dd6931
[13] Tilley, The Bible in Christian North Africa: The
Donatist World, 94
[14] John Anthony Corcoran, “Augustinus Contra Donatistas” (Donaldson, Ind: Graduate Theological Foundation, 1997), 20-21
[15]Tilley, The Bible in Christian North Africa: The
Donatist World, 95
[16] Henry Scowcroft Bettenson and Chris Maunder, Documents
of the Christian Church, 3rd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999),
79. .
c.f. Cyprian, "The Unity of the Church, " in Treatises.
Fathers of the Church 36, translated by Roy J. Deferrari (New York : Catholic
University of America Press, 1953), 99.
[17] Ibid.
[18] Tilley, The Bible in Christian North Africa: The
Donatist World, 29
[19] Éric Rebillard, Christians and Their Many Identities
in Late Antiquity, North Africa, 200-450 CE (Ithaca: Cornell University
Press, 2012), 11
[20] Frend, The Donatist Church: A Movement of Protest in
Roman North Africa (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1952), 5
[21] Hans Lietzmann, The Founding of the Church Universal
(London: Lutterworth, 1950), 302
[22] Henry Scowcroft Bettenson and Chris Maunder, Documents
of the Christian Church, 80
[23] Tilley, The Bible in Christian North Africa: The
Donatist World, 103
Timeline
Corcoran,
John Anthony. "Augustinus Contra Donatistas." Graduate Theological
Foundation, 1997.
Frend,
W. H. C. The Donatist Church: A Movement of Protest in Roman North Africa.
Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1952.
Harris,
Scott C. “The Dark Side of Suffering: Persecution as a Schismatic Source in the
Early Church.” Golden Gate Baptist Theological Seminary, 2000.
Lietzmann,
Hans. The Founding of the Church Universal. London: Lutterworth, 1950.
Oden,
Thomas C. Early Libyan Christianity: Uncovering a North African Tradition.
Downers Grove, Ill.: IVP Academic, 2011.
Rebillard,
Éric. Christians and Their Many Identities in Late Antiquity, North Africa,
200-450 CE. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2012.
Tilley,
Maureen A. The Bible in Christian North Africa: The Donatist World.
Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1997.
Waldrop,
Jeffrey A. “St. Augustine’s Doctrine for Understanding Schismatic Heresy and
His Political Position Concerning the Donatists: A Question of Ecclesiastical
Discipline or an Example of Roman Imperialism in North Africa?” Golden Gate
Baptist Theological Seminary, 2006.
[1]
Translation of the Bible is the author's unless otherwise noted.
[2] Jeffrey A. Waldrop, “St. Augustine’s Doctrine for
Understanding Schismatic Heresy and His Political Position Concerning the
Donatists: A Question of Ecclesiastical Discipline or an Example of Roman
Imperialism in North Africa?” (Th.M. Thesis, Golden Gate Baptist Theological
Seminary, 2006), 9
[3] Scott C. Harris, “The Dark Side of Suffering: Persecution
As a Schismatic Source in the Early Church” (Th. M. Thesis, Golden Gate Baptist
Theological Seminary, 2000), 87
[4] Thomas C. Oden, Early Libyan Christianity: Uncovering
a North African Tradition (Downers Grove, Ill.: IVP Academic, 2011), 87
[5] Optatus, Optatus, Against the Donatists, ed. Mark
Edwards (Liverpool: Liverpool Univ. Press, 1997), 24
[6] Ibid.
[7] Ibid., 25
[8] D. F. Watson, “Roman Empire,” Dictionary of
New Testament Background, Craig A. Evans and Stanley E. Porter, eds. (Downers
Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Press, 2000) 975.
[9] W. H. C. Frend, The Donatist Church: A Movement of
Protest in Roman North Africa (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1952), 27
[10] Ibid., 173
[11] Maureen A. Tilley, The Bible in Christian North
Africa: The Donatist World (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1997), 25
[12] Aurelius Augustinus, Confessions.
Fathers of the Church 21, translated by Vernon J. Bourke (New York : Catholic
University of America Press, 1953), 131, book
6 ch. 2
http://library.ggbts.edu:2083/lib/ggbts/detail.action?docID=10383925&token=6010fdaf-61ff-4e9f-9b21-170ee8dd6931
[13] Tilley, The Bible in Christian North Africa: The
Donatist World, 94
[14] John Anthony Corcoran, “Augustinus Contra Donatistas” (Donaldson, Ind: Graduate Theological Foundation, 1997), 20-21
[15]Tilley, The Bible in Christian North Africa: The
Donatist World, 95
[16] Henry Scowcroft Bettenson and Chris Maunder, Documents
of the Christian Church, 3rd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999),
79. .
c.f. Cyprian, "The Unity of the Church, " in Treatises.
Fathers of the Church 36, translated by Roy J. Deferrari (New York : Catholic
University of America Press, 1953), 99.
[17] Ibid.
[18] Tilley, The Bible in Christian North Africa: The
Donatist World, 29
[19] Éric Rebillard, Christians and Their Many Identities
in Late Antiquity, North Africa, 200-450 CE (Ithaca: Cornell University
Press, 2012), 11
[20] Frend, The Donatist Church: A Movement of Protest in
Roman North Africa (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1952), 5
[21] Hans Lietzmann, The Founding of the Church Universal
(London: Lutterworth, 1950), 302
[22] Henry Scowcroft Bettenson and Chris Maunder, Documents
of the Christian Church, 80
[23] Tilley, The Bible in Christian North Africa: The
Donatist World, 103
Timeline
310 BCE-- Agathocles' takes Utica and Carthage
2/3 of the wheat was taken each year to Rome
during the occupation.
149-146 BCE-- Third Punic War and fall of
Carthage
240-275 CE-- Decline of Saturn worship
245-- Cyprian wrote to Donatus about Baptism
248-- Cyprian becomes bishop of Carthage
250-251-- Dician Persecution
253-- Mauretanian revolt of 253
295-- Martyrdom of Maximilian of Theveste
303-305 Persecution under Diocletian.
May 19 303 Diocletian's edict concerning the
surrender of Christian Scriptures, registration of Church property and
destruction of churches.
304- Outward sign of loyalty to the emperor.
305-- Council of Cirta
4 surrendered Bibles, one destroyed a copy of
the Gospels, one pretended to be blind.
Consecration of Silvanus as bishop
293-306 Constantus Father of Constantine was
peaceful toward Christians. He allowed no executions of Christians.
First as Caesar, then as Augustus while
Diocletian was in the east.
310-- Constantine Became Augustus.
311-- Maxentius summons Felix
Mensurius goes on Felix the deacon's behalf and
receives promises of toleration.
Felix of Aptunga consecrated Caecilian with
two other bishops.
Felix is accused of being a traditor.
312-- Battle of Milvain Bridge at Rome
Constantine defeats Maxentius.
Autumn-- Secundus called a council which
condemned Caecilian as having an illegitimate ordination.
January 313-- Edict of Milan offering religious
liberty to Christianity.
Majorinus appointed bishop instead of
Caecilian.
First Roman Synod called over Caecilian with 10
bishops from each side.
Majorinus' likely death
313-- Election of Donatus of Casae Nigra
October Pope Miltiades pronounced Donatus
guilty of re-baptizing clergy and forming schism.
314-- Council of Arles called by Constantine
Proposal of New bishops.
Feb. 15 Trial of Felix. Found not guilty of traditon.
315-316-- Riots in Carthage
316-- Caecilian tried for a third time and
found innocent
317-- Constantine confiscates Donatist churches
Edict decreeing death penalty on anyone interrupting
the peace.
March 12, 317. Constantine takes the Donatist
held church building in Carthage.
May 5, 321-- Constantine grants freedom to
worship to the Donatists
324-- Licinius is defeated by Crispus,
Constantine's son.
Nicea prevents Constantine from sending bishops
to Africa.
February 5, 330-- Constantine wrote a letter
supporting Caecilian
346-- Donatus asks Constans to be sole bishop
of Carthage
347-8-- Constans seized Donatist churches and
exiled bishops
355-- Death of Donatus of Casae Nigra
372-- Donatists support Firmus' revolt.
393-412-- Augustine's anti-Donatist writings
393--Hippo-Regius Council
391-398-- Revolt of Optatus and Gildo governor
of Africa
391-- Origin
397-- Against the Heretic Donatus
400-- Closing of the pagan shrines in Africa by
the Empire
401-- Election of Innocent
Crispinus, Donatist of Calama held responsible
for attack on Possidius
5th and 6th council of Carthage
402-- Goths defeated in Italy
Death of Symmachus
403-- Bishop of Bagai wounded by Donatists
404-- Bishop of Bagai petitions for assistance
against the Donatists
Augustine applies to Caecilian for protection
against the Donatists
405-- Edict of Unity against the Donatists
Donatism declared heretical.
10th Council of Carthage
407-- Usurpation of Constantine III
409-- Donatists enjoy toleration
Macrobius returns to Hippo
410-- Sack of Rome by Alaric.
Roman Refugees to Africa
Call fore conference in Carthage
May 25 to June 26, 411-- Conference of Carthage
Marcellinus gives his judgment against
Donatists
January 30, 412-- edict banning Donatism
413-- Revolt of Heraclian
Augustine attempts to save Marcellinus
Defeat of Heraclian
Execution of Marcellinus
417-- Innocent Condemns Pelagius
Election of Zosimus and her writes to the
African bishops
418-- Election of Boniface
420-- Gaudentius threatens suicide and
destruction of congregation and building on Dulcitius' arrival.
Rogatists end when Vincintus Victor returns to
the Catholic Church
424-- Eraculius builds memorial to St. Stephen
at Hippo.
426-- Death of Severus of Milevis
427-- Revolt of Boniface
429-- Darius attempts to reconcile Boniface and
the Empress
430-- Vandal invasion of Numidia
596-- Last record about the Donatists Pope
Gregory's letter to Emperor Maurice about the growth of Donatism in Numidia.
698-- Muslim Conquest